Salt (sodium chloride) is useful and necessary for the human body. It is part of the blood, lymph, intercellular spaces and of all cells. Through the salt creates a so-called isotonic state of bodily fluids, which makes the life of cells is possible. Sodium and chloride ions are involved in all the most important life processes. In the day needs to consume 5-8g of salt, the amount of counter balance the loss of sodium chloride, excreted in urine and sweat. Unfortunately, people consume much more salt than they need, sometimes even up to 30-40g per day. This leads to a delay in the body of sodium chloride and the appearance of edema or high blood pressure.

Salt-free diet. The essence of the diet

Salt-free diet excludes the addition of salt in food, salt comes into contact only with food – meat, vegetables, bread, etc. This strict diet is recommended for chronic, neglected forms of the disease. More common is the malosolevaya diet, which allows for minimal podsalivanie food. If you are plagued by only swelling, the gentle malosolevaya diet is right for you.

You can fool your body, replacing salt onion, garlic and herbs. For example, a very pungent taste obtained by adding to soups, salads, meat and fish dishes of soy sauce (no salt), chopped onions, garlic, chopped herbs.

Table salt should be used wisely: to salt broth for 20 minutes before end of cooking, the fish broth with salt immediately after removing the scum. Vegetables pickled for 5-7 minutes until tender. Beans, peas, boiled soft poorly in salt water, making them almost ready prisalivayut, 5 minutes before removing from heat. Fried potatoes salt at the end of cooking. In raw minced meat and fish with salt before cooking.

Salt-free diet is quite effective for obesity:
1) All dishes are prepared without salt. Lightly add some salt just finished food;
2) a meal – at least 4-5 times a day, in small portions;
3) make a move to a sense of light starvation.
Acceptable foods: rye and wheat bread (200 g per day), soup in a weak fish or vegetable broth, meat and fish, low-fat varieties, vegetables: cabbage, cucumbers, zucchini, radishes, beans, tomatoes – not limited to, potatoes, carrots , beets, fruits, berries, dairy products, low fat cottage cheese, eggs, butter (no more than 10 grams per day), tea and coffee drink.

Salt-free diet recommends to exclude: cereals, pasta, bakery products, sugar, jam, grapes, watermelon, bananas, spices, meats, pickles, spicy and sour dishes.

Salt-free diet – is addressed to people with chronic diseases (cardiovascular system and kidneys):
1) All dishes are cooked and eaten without salt;
2) a meal – at least 5 times a day, in small portions;
3) The food is cooked only for a couple;
4) completely eliminated fried foods;
5) The oil is added to cooked dishes.
Recommended products: rye and wheat bread (yesterday), crackers, cookies nesdobnoe, dry biscuits, soups, vegetable or fruit in the broth, lean beef, poultry and fish, cereal porridge meals from raw and cooked vegetables, sweet fruits and berries, eggs (no more than one day), jelly, stewed fruit, jelly, milk, cheese, mild cheese, tea with milk. Especially useful for foods rich in potassium salts: raisins, dried apricots, dried apricots, figs, potatoes, cabbage juice.

Excluded are: fried, fatty and spicy dishes, meats, pickles, marinades, fish and meat broths, mutton, pork, goose, confectionery.

The next menu option is calculated salt-free diet for 15 days:
3 days of chicken without skin and fat (preferably breast) – one day you can eat 500 grams
3 days of fish (not oil-rich) – about 500 grams you can eat for a day
3 days of any mess on the water – you can add milk. 1 day 250 grams of oatmeal in a dry form.
3 days of vegetables, except potatoes (1-2 kg for 1 day)
3 days of fruits, except bananas (1-2 kg for 1 day)

All products cook without salt!

To identify the presence of new drugs, forensic scientists
will always need to develop new analytical techniques. In
addition, analytical techniques with greater specificity and
sensitivity will continue to be developed for existing drugs.
Reporting false-positive results may send an innocent person
to prison, so everything possible must be done to avoid such
an outcome. Assays with enhanced sensitivity to detect both
parent compound and metabolites will allow for detection
of drugs over longer periods of time and for more accurate
determination of when an individual was first exposed to a
chemical.
Today, everyone is aware of terrorist activity. A well-known
terrorist attack involving chemicals occurred in 1995 with the
release of the nerve gas sarin in the subway systems of Tokyo,
resulting in the death of 12 people and injury of many more.
Should chemicals again be used for terrorist activity, forensic
pharmacologists and toxicologists may be called upon
to analyze bodily samples in order to identify the chemical,
determine its mechanism of action, and propose antidotes
and preventive measures.
Forensic science is an exciting and rewarding field of work. A
forensic scientist is at times a scientific detective and at times a
teacher, instructing the judge, attorney, and jury, and helping
to promote justice. Enrollment in forensic science programs
will continue to increase as new programs are established at
colleges and forensic science courses are introduced at the
high school level. As more industries, sports organizations,
and agencies involved with supervision of children monitor
their personnel for drug abuse, additional forensic scientists
and laboratory facilities will be needed.
To assure that the best technology is available and that
personnel are qualified, forensic science laboratories should
undergo accreditation processes with periodic proficiency
testing. This will assure some uniformity in procedure among
different laboratories, and provide assurance that samples are
analyzed correctly and data are interpreted accurately.
Thus, much work lies ahead. As the field of forensic science
advances, forensic pharmacologists and toxicologists will
continue to be integral players in bringing truth to our system
of justice.

In the first chapters of this book, we discussed the fields of
pharmacology and toxicology, how these sciences are applied
to the legal system, the role of the forensic scientist, and some
of the analytical tools used to detect the presence of chemicals
in bodily f luids and tissues. Drugs of abuse were chosen
to illustrate practical applications of forensic pharmacology,
since these drugs are often involved in legal matters. In order
to establish a causal link between exposure to a chemical and
an eventual outcome, the forensic scientist must understand
the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and effects of
each chemical under study. Only then can one draw an accurate
conclusion as to causality. Each of the eight drug chapters
provided actual cases to illustrate how such information
played a role in the resolution of the case. It is now of interest
to look ahead and envision the role of forensic pharmacology
in the future.
New chemicals are synthesized constantly. Also, many
pharmacologically active chemicals continue to be found
in plant life and sea life, and it can be expected that these
resources will continue to provide new material. Some of the
newly discovered chemicals will have antianxiety properties
or be used to treat pain, and such drugs, acting in the central
nervous system (CNS), may lead to drug abuse. In addition
to new chemicals, people are constantly modifying existing
drugs of abuse and synthesizing new drugs for recreational
purposes. Consequently, either to maintain the habit of taking
these drugs or because of their effects on behavior, coordination,
and judgment, users may engage in criminal activity
or cause injury to themselves or others. The forensic scientist
needs to be knowledgeable of new legal and illegal drugs and
of their pharmacological and toxicological effects.
Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies lead to a
greater understanding of chemical interactions at the molecular
level and may identify specific receptors for drug activity.
With more specific knowledge of how a drug works, it may
become easier to more accurately establish what effects are
actually caused by a particular drug. Thus, studies in these
two areas of pharmacology will always be necessary.
As discussed earlier, forensic pharmacology and toxicology
are not limited to the study of drugs of abuse or poisons.
These fields of science also have a growing role in the legal
system to help resolve civil issues related to chemical exposure
and cancer causation, medical malpractice as a result of drug
interactions, and product liability issues.

Depending on the AAS, a steroid can be administered either
orally or by injection . Testosterone is inactivated
in the liver and has little effect if taken orally. Synthetic compounds,
which are less readily metabolized, can be given by
mouth, but are usually given in oil by intramuscular injection
and are absorbed slowly. AAS can be detected in urine within
four to six hours after use and, depending on the AAS, for weeks
or months thereafter.
Unlike most drugs discussed in prior chapters, use of AAS
does not result in euphoria. People use these agents for long
periods of time to improve their physical appearance and athletic
performance. A metabolite of testosterone, dihydrotestosterone,
acts in the cell nucleus to synthesize RNA and protein
molecules that result in more efficient use of nitrogen to build
muscle tissue. Individuals using AAS, however, are in danger
of developing a physical and psychological dependence.
Withdrawal results in depressive mood, fatigue, restlessness,
anorexia, insomnia, decreased libido, musculoskeletal pain,
and suicidal tendencies.
Adverse reactions that can occur while taking AAS include
liver toxicity, suicide, delirium, aggression (called “roid rage”),
mood swings, psychosis, premature baldness, and acne. Steroids
can interfere with endocrine function. For males, there is the
possibility of benign prostatic hypertrophy, testicular atrophy,
sterility, enlargement of breast tissue, and closure of the bone
epiphysis, resulting in shortened growth. For females, the concerns
include shrinking of breast size, clitoral hypertrophy,
hirsutism (facial and body hair), and deepened voice. AAS have
been used medically to treat osteoporosis, anemia, breast cancer,
and other diseases.

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) used as drugs of abuse
include the natural hormone testosterone and its synthetic
derivatives. Not included in this class of drugs are the female
steroid hormones, estrogen, and progesterone, and the corticosteroids,
such as cortisone and prednisone. More than 150 years
ago, it was discovered that testes played a role in maintaining
male characteristics. Testosterone, isolated from bull testes, was
identified as the active chemical. It soon became evident that
testosterone not only controlled masculinizing (androgenic)
properties but could also induce muscle-building (anabolic)
effects. Since synthetic derivatives of testosterone induce both
anabolic and androgenic effects, this class of drugs is called
anabolic-androgenic steroids.
Recently, two books have drawn attention to the use of steroids
by baseball players, and Congress has held hearings on the
extent of steroid use in this sport. The current rules provide for
a 50-game suspension for a first-time steroid user, a 100-game
suspension for a second-time offender, and a lifetime ban from
baseball if tested positive for a third time. A NIDA survey taken
in 2002 indicates that 2.5% of 8th graders, 3.5% of 10th graders,
and 4.0% of 12th graders have used anabolic-androgenic steroids
at least once.18
AAS are Schedule III drugs and are referred to as roids
and juice. Products include Anadrol® (oxymetholone), Oxandrin
® (oxandrolone), Dianabol® (methandrostenolone, D-bol,
D-ball), Winstrol® (stanozolol), Durabolin® (nandrolone),
Depo®-testosterone (testosterone, Depo-T), and Equipoise®
(boldenone).

Vapors can be inhaled directly from a can, a bag (called “bagging”),
a balloon, or an inhalant-soaked cloth (called “huffing”).
Inhalants enter the bloodstream through the capillaries
on lung alveoli and, being highly lipid soluble, easily pass the
blood-brain barrier . They interfere with ion
movement in the cell membrane at the glutamate or GABA
receptor, resulting in an inhibition of transmission.
Depending on the dose, inhalants can cause effects ranging
from intoxication to anesthesia. Intoxication can last only a
few minutes or several hours, if inhalants are taken repeatedly.
Initially, users may feel slightly stimulated, euphoric, and
light-headed. With repeated inhalations, users may feel less
inhibited and less in control, and can hallucinate. Other effects
include headache, muscle weakness, abdominal pain, severe
mood swings and violent behavior, numbness and tingling of
the hands and feet, nausea, and lack of coordination. Inhaling
highly concentrated amounts of chemicals can quickly lead to
arrhythmia, heart failure, and death. This is known as “sudden
sniffing death.” The nitrites relax smooth muscle causing
vasodilation and induce flushing, warmth, hypotension, and
dizziness. For example, amyl nitrite is used as a medication
to relieve angina (chest pain caused by lack of blood flow and
oxygen to the heart) by dilating the coronary vessels.
Signs of inhalant abuse are unusual breath odor or chemical
odor on clothing; paint or stain marks on the face, fingers, or
clothing; spots or sores around the mouth; and red or runny eyes
or nose. Other clues include hidden rags or clothing, or empty
containers.
Chronic abuse of inhalants can cause severe, irreversible effects
on the brain, heart, liver, lungs, kidneys, and blood, and can
result in hearing loss, limb spasms, cognitive impairment, and
various psychological and social problems. Inhalants damage
the peripheral nerves, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis,
and damage the nerve fibers in the CNS. Inhalant abuse during
pregnancy can cause spontaneous abortion, premature delivery,
and fetal abnormalities such as low birth weight, small head size,
facial abnormalities, and muscle tone abnormalities similar to
those occurring in fetal alcohol syndrome.
Nitrous oxide can react with vitamin B12, preventing its use
in red blood cell development and resulting in anemia. Use of
nitrites can rapidly result in fatal methemoglobinemia, a condition
that reduces the ability of the blood to transport oxygen. In
1944, 11 men were admitted to a New York hospital with bluish
discoloration of the skin due to methemoglobinemia. The city
toxicologist and the health department eventually determined
that salt shakers in a food establishment visited by all of the men
contained sodium nitrite instead of table salt, sodium chloride.
Tolerance to inhalants can develop with frequent use, and
withdrawal symptoms include sleep disturbance, irritability,
jitteriness, sweating, nausea and vomiting, fast heart rate, and
hallucinations or delusions. Withdrawal can last one month or
longer, and the relapse rate is high.

Inhalants of abuse are substances whose volatile vapors can
be inhaled either through the nose or the mouth into the lungs
and then travel to the brain, where they induce euphoria and
mind-altering effects. In the late 1700s, an English chemist,
Joseph Priestley, discovered that nitrous oxide gas has mindaltering
and anesthetic effects, and, in the 1830s, chloroform
was discovered to have anesthetic effects as well. Many of the
volatile solvents, paint thinners, gasoline degreasers, and glues
were abused during World War I and subsequently, but it was
not until 1959 that inhalant abuse was first documented in
the media, in Denver, Colorado, and then use spread to other
cities. Inhalants are common among adolescents and are often
the first drugs of abuse because they are inexpensive, difficult
to detect, and easily available. During 2004, 9.6% of 8th graders,
5.9% of 10th graders, and 4.2% of 12th graders had used
inhalants.17
Inhalants are found in many commercial products and are
not listed as controlled substances. They can be solvents such as
toluene, found in paint thinner, degreaser, nail polish remover,
gasoline, and glue; propellants such as butane and propane,
used in hair sprays and cooking sprays; gases, including
medical anesthetics such as chloroform and nitrous oxide
(laughing gas, also used as propellant for whipped cream and
inhaled from balloons); and nitrites, including amyl nitrite
and isobutyl nitrite. Many of the inhalants are flammable, and
people who use them can suffer serious burns.
Some street names for inhalants include air blast, hippie
crack, moon gas, poor man’s pot, rush, and snappers. Amyl
nitrite is known as amies, pearls, and poppers. Nitrous oxide
is known as hysteria, laughing gas, NOZ, shoot the breeze, and
whippets.

Both PCP and ketamine can be used as a liquid or solid and can
be injected, ingested, snorted, or smoked when sprinkled on
marijuana or parsley leaves. Heat destroys much of the drug.
Peak blood levels occur within 15 minutes after smoking.
The effects last for approximately 4 hours, although it may take
more than 24 hours for an individual to return to a normal state.
The drugs are stored in fatty tissue and released slowly. PCP has
a long half-life ranging from many hours to days, and the PCP
glucuronide metabolite can be found in urine for several days or
weeks. PCP is found in breast milk. The half-life of ketamine is
three to four hours, and metabolites of ketamine are excreted in
urine. PCP and ketamine cross the placental barrier, and infants
of chronic abusers have been born with cerebral palsy, facial
deformities, and behavioral abnormalities.
PCP and ketamine bind to the NMDA receptor and block
the neurotransmitter glutamate. PCP also blocks reuptake of
dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Because so many
neurotransmitters are affected, the signs and symptoms of PCP
intoxication are numerous and varied.
The acute behavioral effects of PCP and ketamine include
euphoria, distortion of the senses and of time, impaired judgment,
anxiety, sedation, analgesia, dizziness, dissociation from
surroundings, amnesia, psychosis, panic attacks, paranoia, violent
behavior, hallucinations, catatonia (a condition characterized
by bizarre rigid positions and unresponsiveness), coma,
and seizure. People may have thoughts of death and dying,
and are susceptible to suggestion and manipulation. Under the
influence of PCP, individuals have shown very bizarre behavior,
including lying down in traffic, suddenly murdering or raping
family members, and robbing a bank using a broom. Often the
individual cannot recall any of the events.
The physiological effects include an increase in blood pressure
and body temperature, nystagmus, slurred speech, ataxia,
blurred vision, excessive sweating and salivation, fast heart rate,
nausea, vomiting, and extraordinary strength. Deaths have been
recorded from heart or respiratory failure.
Tolerance to dissociative anesthetics does develop. Psychological
dependence is greater than physical dependence, although
withdrawal symptoms may last for several weeks and include
diarrhea, chills, tremor, anxiety, depression, and irritability. Prolonged
use of PCP may induce permanent learning disabilities,
amnesia, depression, and antisocial behavior.

Dissociative anesthetics induce analgesia in patients who are
conscious but feel removed from their surrounding environment.
The two prominent dissociative anesthetics are phencyclidine
(PCP) and ketamine. PCP is a synthetic drug first prepared in
1926 and tested as a general anesthetic for surgical patients in the
late 1950s under the trade name of Sernyl®. Although anesthetized,
patients given phencyclidine remained conscious, staring,
and rigid, without depression of respiration or cardiovascular
function. Following surgery, however, patients became delirious,
disoriented, and unmanageable, and phencyclidine testing
was discontinued. Until 1978, the drug was still used legally
for veterinary anesthesia under the name Sernylan®. In the late
1960s, PCP became popular as a street drug in San Francisco
and was termed the “peace pill.” In spite of reports of “bad trips”
and violent behavior, its popularity increased during the 1970s
and 1980s. Though illicit use of PCP declined with the rise of
cocaine use in the 1980s, it now appears to be increasing.
Street names for PCP include angel dust, cadillac, CJ, crystal,
dust, elephant tranquilizer, embalming fluid, hog, jet fuel, juice,
killer weed, love boat, Peace, PeaCePill, rocket fuel, sherms
(using cigarettes produced by Nat Sherman Tobacco Company
for dipping into liquid PCP), whack, and zoom. When used in
combination with embalming fluid (which contains formaldehyde,
methanol, and ethanol), it is known on the street as wets,
illy, and fry. It is also used in combination with heroin, LSD, and
marijuana. The combination with marijuana is termed killer
joints, crystal supergrass, or, in Spanish, yerba mala. PCP is listed
in Schedule II.
Calvin Stevens developed ketamine while working at Parke-
Davis in 1961. It is used as a veterinary and human anesthetic,
and is a Schedule III drug. It was widely used as a field anesthetic
in the Vietnam War, and it entered the rave scene in the early
1990s. Ketamine has been used as a date rape drug. Street names
include baby food, cat Valium, honey oil, jet, K, keets, ket, special
K, super acid, super C, and vitamin K (Figure 10.1). Trade names
are Ketalar®, Ketajet®, and Ketaset®.

Each dose of LSD (about 0.05 mg) is too small to be sold and
administered separately. A solution of LSD is applied to a carrier,
such as paper, which is then cut up into individual portions. A
person convicted of distributing LSD is sentenced according to
the entire weight of material seized, including the carrier. Since
carriers may be of different weights, the same number of doses
of LSD may carry different sentences. Although recognizing the
unfairness of this law, the Supreme Court ruled that the weight
of LSD does include carrier and that it is up to Congress to
change the statute.
In one actual case, a man used LSD and, within an hour thereafter,
killed a store owner. The defendant claims that he awoke
one morning and took five to six Fioricet® tablets, went out and
purchased two bags of heroin, and took cocaine hourly for five
hours. Then, for the first time in six years, he took six “hits” of
LSD. His memory afterward was vague, until he realized that
he was in police custody. He apparently entered a store, had an
argument with the owner, and killed him. People witnessing the
events captured and held the defendant until the police arrived.
The man was found guilty of murder.